In 1990, the Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic declared sovereignty, marking a pivotal step toward independence from Soviet rule.

In 1990, the Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic declared sovereignty, marking a pivotal step toward independence from Soviet rule.

Kazakhstan's journey to sovereignty and eventual independence from the Soviet Union is a significant chapter in Central Asian history. This process, punctuated by the Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic’s declaration of sovereignty on October 25, 1990, was influenced by a mix of internal cultural revival, political shifts within the USSR, and the broader wave of nationalism sweeping across Soviet republics. Kazakhstan’s transformation is not only a tale of nationalism and identity but also an account of adapting to immense socio-political change after decades under Soviet rule.

 

Early Roots and Formation of the Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic

Kazakhstan's relationship with the Soviet Union began with a complex history of integration and subjugation under Russian rule. In the 18th and 19th centuries, Russia gradually expanded its influence over Central Asia, incorporating Kazakh territories through treaties and military campaigns. By the late 19th century, Kazakhstan was part of the Russian Empire, divided into administrative regions that the Tsarist government controlled. This incorporation fundamentally altered Kazakh society, introducing Russian governance structures, imposing new economic policies, and enforcing Russian cultural norms.

With the Russian Revolution in 1917 and the subsequent establishment of the Soviet Union in 1922, the Bolsheviks seized control over Kazakhstan and other Central Asian territories, promising to bring socialism and progress to the “backward” regions. In 1920, the Kyrgyz Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (not to be confused with present-day Kyrgyzstan) was established, which included much of modern Kazakhstan. Renamed the Kazakh Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic in 1925, it eventually achieved the status of a full republic within the Soviet Union in 1936, officially known as the Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic.

Soviet Rule and Its Impact on Kazakh Society

Kazakhstan, like other republics, underwent intense transformation during Soviet rule. Stalin’s policies deeply impacted Kazakh society, particularly the forced collectivization of agriculture in the 1930s, which led to a massive famine that killed over a million Kazakhs and wiped out livestock. This famine resulted in a significant demographic change, forcing many Kazakhs to leave their ancestral lands in search of sustenance, altering their traditional nomadic lifestyle. Additionally, Soviet policies encouraged the migration of Russians, Ukrainians, and other ethnic groups into Kazakhstan, which would create a complex, multi-ethnic society and dilute the cultural identity of the indigenous Kazakh population.

Despite the hardships, Soviet modernization brought Kazakhstan industrial development, urbanization, and education, which elevated literacy rates and expanded healthcare. However, this development came at the cost of traditional Kazakh culture, language, and heritage. The USSR's policy of "Russification" prioritized Russian language and culture over local traditions, causing Kazakh culture to be pushed to the periphery. The Kazakh SSR’s leaders, while holding limited authority, mostly complied with Moscow’s directives, leading to a centralized power structure that dictated the republic’s policies and governance from afar.

Rising Nationalism and the Path to Sovereignty

The decline of Soviet control began in the mid-1980s under Mikhail Gorbachev’s policies of glasnost (openness) and perestroika (restructuring). These reforms aimed to revitalize the stagnant Soviet economy and address bureaucratic inefficiencies. However, they also inadvertently spurred nationalist movements across the USSR’s republics by encouraging open discourse about previously suppressed issues. In Kazakhstan, these reforms provided a platform for discussing the nation’s struggles with cultural repression, economic inequality, and ecological devastation—such as the environmental crisis in the Aral Sea and the nuclear testing in Semipalatinsk, which had severely affected the health and environment in Kazakhstan.

The first signs of unrest in Kazakhstan appeared in 1986, known as the Jeltoqsan protests. These protests erupted after Gorbachev dismissed Dinmukhamed Kunaev, the First Secretary of the Communist Party of Kazakhstan, replacing him with Gennady Kolbin, an ethnic Russian from outside Kazakhstan. The decision was perceived as an affront to Kazakh pride and autonomy, sparking a wave of protests in Almaty, the Kazakh capital at the time. Although Soviet authorities quickly suppressed these protests, they became a symbolic moment of Kazakh resistance, highlighting the people's desire for local leadership and respect for their national identity.

Throughout the late 1980s, as economic instability and political unrest spread across the Soviet Union, more Kazakhs began to advocate for greater autonomy. Intellectuals, poets, and artists led cultural movements aimed at reviving Kazakh language, history, and traditions. Kazakh youth, in particular, became more vocal about issues of national identity, ecological degradation, and the right to self-determination.

The Declaration of Sovereignty: October 25, 1990

Against this backdrop of rising nationalism and social upheaval, Kazakhstan formally declared its sovereignty on October 25, 1990. The Kazakh Supreme Soviet issued the “Declaration on State Sovereignty of the Kazakh SSR,” which articulated the republic's right to autonomy within the Soviet Union. This declaration was significant as it was one of the earliest moves toward asserting Kazakhstan’s political and economic independence.

The Declaration of Sovereignty stated that Kazakhstan held supreme authority over its natural resources, economy, and political structures. It asserted that all laws of the Kazakh SSR would take precedence over Soviet laws, effectively challenging Moscow’s control. The declaration further emphasized the republic’s commitment to preserving Kazakh culture and language, along with protecting the rights of all ethnic groups within Kazakhstan.

This declaration was not an outright secession from the Soviet Union but rather an assertion of Kazakhstan's autonomous rights. The Kazakh SSR was cautious, aiming to maintain a balance between preserving ties with the Soviet Union and asserting its sovereignty. Kazakhstan’s leadership, under Nursultan Nazarbayev, carefully navigated this period of transition, advocating for more significant autonomy without directly antagonizing Soviet authorities.

The Path to Full Independence

Following the sovereignty declaration, Kazakhstan's political climate continued to shift rapidly. The Soviet Union's grip weakened further in 1991 as other republics declared independence, and the August Coup attempted by hardline Communist officials in Moscow failed. This period saw the collapse of Soviet power structures and the disintegration of central authority. Nazarbayev and other Kazakh leaders recognized the need for full independence as the Soviet Union was no longer viable as a political entity.

In December 1991, after the formal dissolution of the Soviet Union, Kazakhstan declared full independence on December 16, becoming the last Soviet republic to do so. This declaration marked a historic moment as Kazakhstan emerged as a fully independent nation-state, free from Soviet control for the first time in its modern history. Nazarbayev was elected as the first president of independent Kazakhstan, a position he would hold for nearly three decades, shaping the country’s post-Soviet future.

Kazakhstan’s Challenges and Achievements as a New Nation

Independence brought new challenges and opportunities for Kazakhstan. The country faced economic hardships, inherited a centralized economy heavily reliant on Moscow, and had to build its institutions from scratch. Kazakhstan, rich in natural resources, especially oil, and gas, recognized the need to attract foreign investment to stabilize and grow its economy. Nazarbayev introduced market reforms and sought partnerships with foreign nations, fostering ties with both Western and Eastern countries to establish Kazakhstan as a strategic player in international affairs.

Kazakhstan also faced the challenge of building a cohesive national identity in a multi-ethnic society. The republic's demographics included a substantial Russian minority alongside other ethnic groups. Nazarbayev promoted a policy of multiculturalism, emphasizing Kazakh identity while respecting the diverse cultural and linguistic backgrounds of all citizens. This approach helped maintain peace and stability in Kazakhstan, unlike some other former Soviet republics where ethnic tensions led to conflict.

Environmental and Cultural Revitalization

Environmental and cultural revitalization became core components of Kazakhstan’s post-independence policy. The legacy of Soviet-era nuclear testing and environmental degradation demanded immediate action. In 1991, Kazakhstan closed the Semipalatinsk Test Site, which had been used for Soviet nuclear tests, causing widespread ecological and health damage in the region. Kazakhstan also took significant steps to address the Aral Sea crisis, working with international organizations to mitigate the ecological disaster.

Culturally, the government promoted the Kazakh language, declaring it the official state language while also supporting Russian as a language of inter-ethnic communication. Educational reforms aimed to revive Kazakh heritage, literature, and arts, creating a renewed sense of pride and unity among the Kazakh people.

Kazakhstan’s Role on the Global Stage

In the years following independence, Kazakhstan emerged as an influential player in Central Asia and the global community. The country joined the United Nations and various international organizations, establishing itself as a proponent of non-nuclear proliferation. Kazakhstan voluntarily gave up its Soviet-era nuclear arsenal, the fourth-largest in the world, in a decision that earned it international recognition and set a precedent for nuclear disarmament.

Kazakhstan also became a founding member of the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) and pursued partnerships within the Eurasian region, including economic alliances with Russia and China. Nazarbayev’s administration sought to balance Kazakhstan’s relationship with major powers like Russia, China, and the United States, establishing a “multi-vector” foreign policy aimed at maintaining Kazakhstan’s independence and stability.

Legacy of the Sovereignty Declaration

The Kazakh SSR’s 1990 declaration of sovereignty was a pivotal step in Kazakhstan’s journey from Soviet republic to independent nation. It represented a watershed moment that symbolized the aspirations of the Kazakh people to assert control over their destiny, preserve their cultural heritage, and build a future free from external domination. Today, October 25 is celebrated as Republic Day in Kazakhstan, commemorating this critical milestone in the nation’s history.

As Kazakhstan continues to navigate its path in the modern world, the legacy of its sovereignty declaration endures as a testament to the resilience and determination of the Kazakh people. This journey reflects Kazakhstan's broader commitment to building a stable, prosperous, and culturally rich nation, honoring the memory of those who fought for sovereignty and the vision of a brighter future.

Photo : Shutterstock

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