Walter Hallstein: Architect of European Integration and First President of the European Commission
The Legacy of Walter Hallstein
Walter
Hallstein (17 November 1901 - 29 March 1982) stands as one of the most
influential figures in the history of European integration. As the first
President of the European Commission from 1958 to 1967, Hallstein
shaped the institutional foundations of what would become the European
Union. His vision of a federal Europe, his administrative acumen in
building supranational institutions, and his diplomatic skills in
navigating complex international negotiations established patterns of
European governance that endure to this day.
Hallstein's
career spanned multiple domains - academia, diplomacy, and European
politics - each phase preparing him for his pivotal role in European
institution-building. From Germany's youngest law professor to State
Secretary at the German Foreign Office under Konrad Adenauer, and
finally to the presidency of the European Economic Community's
Commission, Hallstein consistently advocated for deeper European
integration as the solution to Europe's historical conflicts and
contemporary challenges.
This
comprehensive examination of Hallstein's life and work will explore his
early academic career, his wartime experiences, his crucial role in
post-war German diplomacy, his visionary leadership of the European
Commission, and his lasting impact on the European project. We will
analyze both his achievements and the controversies surrounding his
approach, particularly his federalist vision that ultimately led to his
departure from the Commission.
Early Life and Academic Career (1901-1945)
Formative Years and Legal Education
Walter
Peter Hallstein was born on 17 November 1901 in Mainz, Germany, into a
middle-class family. His early education at a classical school in Mainz
laid the foundation for his later intellectual pursuits. After
completing his Abitur (university entrance qualification) in 1920,
Hallstein embarked on the study of law, attending universities in Bonn,
Munich, and finally Berlin at the Friedrich Wilhelm University (now
Humboldt University).
Hallstein's
academic trajectory was remarkably swift and distinguished. At just 23
years old, he earned his doctorate in 1925 with a dissertation examining
commercial aspects of the Treaty of Versailles - an early indication of
his interest in international law and relations. Following legal
clerkship at the Kammergericht (Berlin's superior court) from 1923-1926
and a brief stint as a judge in 1927, Hallstein joined the prestigious
Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Foreign Private and International Private
Law in Berlin.
Under
the mentorship of Professor Martin Wolff, a leading scholar of private
law, Hallstein specialized in comparative commercial and company law. He
completed his Habilitation (the qualification for university teaching
in Germany) in 1929 with a thesis on company law, and at the
unprecedented age of 29, was appointed professor of private law and
company law at the University of Rostock in 1930 - making him Germany's
youngest law professor at the time.
Academic Advancement During the Nazi Era
Hallstein's
academic career continued to advance during the turbulent 1930s and
early 1940s. He served as Deputy Dean of Rostock's Law Faculty in 1935
and became Dean in 1936, positions he held until 1941 when he moved to
Frankfurt University as Director of the Institute for Comparative Law
and Economic Law.
This
period of Hallstein's life has been subject to historical scrutiny, as
it coincided with the rise and consolidation of Nazi power in Germany.
While Hallstein joined several professional organizations that were
nominally Nazi-affiliated, available evidence indicates he never joined
the Nazi Party itself or its paramilitary wing, the SA. Contemporary
accounts suggest he maintained distance from Nazi ideology, and his 1941
appointment at Frankfurt faced opposition from Nazi officials before
being pushed through by academic colleagues.
Hallstein
also undertook voluntary military service during this period, attending
various military courses between 1936-1939 and becoming a reserve
officer. In 1942, he was called up for active service as a first
lieutenant (Oberleutnant) in an artillery regiment stationed in northern
France.
Prisoner of War and Intellectual Activity
Hallstein's
wartime service ended on 26 June 1944 when he was captured by American
forces during the Battle of Cherbourg. Transported to Camp Como, a
prisoner-of-war camp in Mississippi, Hallstein turned his captivity into
an intellectual opportunity. He organized a "camp university" where he
taught law courses to fellow prisoners and participated in the U.S.
Army's "Sunflower Project" - a re-education program that exposed German
POWs to American democratic principles and constitutional governance.
These
experiences profoundly influenced Hallstein's postwar thinking. His
exposure to American federalism and democratic institutions during
captivity, combined with his firsthand witnessing of Europe's
destructive nationalism, shaped his later advocacy for European
integration as both an economic necessity and political imperative.
Postwar Academic and Diplomatic Career (1945-1957)
Rebuilding German Academia
Returning
to Germany in November 1945, Hallstein immediately involved himself in
the reconstruction of German academic life. He played a key role in
reopening Frankfurt University, where he became a professor on 1
February 1946. Just two months later, he was elected rector of the
university, a position he held until 1948. During this period, Hallstein
also founded and presided over the South German Rectors' Conference,
establishing himself as a leading figure in postwar German higher
education.
Hallstein's
international connections and clean political record (having never
joined the Nazi Party) made him a valuable figure in Germany's cultural
diplomacy. From 1948-1949, he served as a visiting professor at
Georgetown University in Washington D.C., further strengthening his ties
with American academia and policymakers. He also co-founded the German
national UNESCO committee, serving as its president from 1949-1950.
Transition to Diplomacy: The Schuman Plan Negotiations
Hallstein's
transition from academia to diplomacy began in June 1950 when German
Chancellor Konrad Adenauer, on the recommendation of economist Wilhelm
Röpke, appointed him to lead the German delegation in negotiations over
the Schuman Plan - French Foreign Minister Robert Schuman's proposal for
a European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC).
This
appointment marked a turning point in Hallstein's career and in the
history of European integration. Working closely with Jean Monnet, the
French delegation leader, Hallstein helped craft the institutional
framework that would become the ECSC, established by the Treaty of Paris
in 1951. The ECSC, which pooled French and German coal and steel
production under a supranational High Authority, represented the first
concrete step toward European integration and the precursor to today's
European Union.
Hallstein's
performance at these negotiations impressed Adenauer, who in August
1950 appointed him head of the Office of Foreign Affairs at the Federal
Chancellery. When the German Foreign Office was reestablished in March
1951 (Germany having been without a foreign ministry since the war),
Hallstein became its State Secretary on 2 April 1951 - effectively
serving as West Germany's top diplomat while Adenauer himself held the
title of Foreign Minister.
Architect of West German Foreign Policy
As
State Secretary from 1951-1958, Hallstein played a central role in
shaping West Germany's postwar foreign policy. He was instrumental in
negotiating the treaties that restored West German sovereignty,
including the 1952 Treaty of Bonn and the 1954 Paris Accords, which
ended the Allied occupation and paved the way for West Germany's
membership in NATO.
Hallstein's
most famous contribution during this period was the formulation of the
"Hallstein Doctrine" - West Germany's policy of refusing diplomatic
relations with any country (except the Soviet Union) that recognized
East Germany. This doctrine, which remained in effect until 1969,
reflected Hallstein's commitment to maintaining West Germany's claim as
the sole legitimate German state while pursuing integration with Western
Europe.
Within
Adenauer's government, Hallstein represented the "Europeanist" faction
that favored deep political and economic integration, often clashing
with Economics Minister Ludwig Erhard, who preferred looser economic
cooperation through intergovernmental organizations like the OEEC
(Organization for European Economic Cooperation). Hallstein viewed
European integration not merely as an economic project but as a
political necessity to prevent a return to nationalist conflicts.
From Messina to Rome: Crafting the EEC
Hallstein's
diplomatic skills were further tested at the 1955 Messina Conference,
where he led the German delegation in discussions that would lead to the
creation of the European Economic Community (EEC). Despite internal
German divisions between Hallstein's Foreign Office and Erhard's
Economics Ministry, the conference established an intergovernmental
committee (chaired by Belgian Foreign Minister Paul-Henri Spaak) to
develop proposals for further integration.
The
Spaak Report that emerged from these discussions formed the basis for
the Treaty of Rome, signed on 25 March 1957, which established both the
EEC and Euratom (the European Atomic Energy Community). Hallstein played
a crucial role in these negotiations, helping to bridge differences
between member states and maintaining momentum toward integration
despite competing national interests.
When
the Treaty of Rome came into force on 1 January 1958, Hallstein's
extensive experience in European negotiations and his vision for
integration made him the natural choice to lead the new European
Economic Community's Commission - the executive body that would oversee
implementation of the treaty and development of the common market.
Presidency of the European Commission (1958-1967)
Establishing the New Institution
Walter
Hallstein assumed office as the first President of the EEC Commission
on 7 January 1958, leading a nine-member body (with two commissioners
each from France, Italy, and West Germany, and one each from Belgium,
the Netherlands, and Luxembourg). The Commission held its first formal
meeting on 16 January 1958 at the Château of Val-Duchesse in Brussels.
From
the outset, Hallstein approached his role with a clear federalist
vision. He famously described his position as "a kind of European prime
minister" and dismissed national sovereignty as a "doctrine of
yesteryear" . This supranational orientation would define his presidency but also ultimately contribute to his downfall.
Hallstein's
first priority was to establish the Commission as an effective
executive body. He organized it along the lines of a national
government, with specialized portfolios for each commissioner and a
clear hierarchical structure. This approach gave the new institution
operational capacity but also drew criticism from those who feared the
creation of a "European superstate".
Building the Common Market
The
Commission's primary task under the Treaty of Rome was to establish a
common market among member states. Hallstein pursued this goal with
remarkable energy, overseeing the elimination of internal tariffs and
the creation of a customs union, which was achieved ahead of schedule by
1968.
One
of Hallstein's most significant achievements was the development of the
Common Agricultural Policy (CAP). Recognizing that industrial
integration alone would not sustain European unity, Hallstein championed
a comprehensive agricultural policy that would protect farmers' incomes
while modernizing European agriculture. The CAP, established in 1962,
became the EEC's most expensive and politically sensitive policy,
absorbing over 70% of the community budget for decades.
Hallstein
also advanced integration in other areas, including competition policy
(establishing rules against cartels and monopolies), transport policy
(developing common standards), and social policy (creating the European
Social Fund). Under his leadership, the Commission began developing what
would later become hallmark EU policies.
Institutional Development and Supranational Vision
Beyond
specific policies, Hallstein worked to strengthen the Community's
institutional framework. He cultivated a close relationship with the
European Parliamentary Assembly (precursor to today's European
Parliament), presenting his proposals to parliament before the Council
of Ministers - a practice that emphasized his view of the Commission as
accountable to a European rather than intergovernmental body.
In
1965, Hallstein proposed reforms to strengthen the Commission's
autonomy and the Parliament's powers. These included giving the
Community its own financial resources (rather than relying on member
state contributions) and extending majority voting in the Council of
Ministers (reducing national veto power). Hallstein saw these changes as
necessary for effective decision-making in an expanding Community, but
they provoked fierce opposition, particularly from French President
Charles de Gaulle.
The Empty Chair Crisis and Hallstein's Downfall
Hallstein's
ambitious proposals triggered what became known as the "Empty Chair
Crisis" of 1965-1966. De Gaulle, who opposed any strengthening of
supranational institutions at the expense of national sovereignty,
withdrew French representatives from EEC institutions, bringing
Community business to a standstill.
The
crisis was resolved by the "Luxembourg Compromise" in January 1966,
which effectively preserved national veto power on issues deemed vital
to national interests. While this compromise allowed the Community to
continue functioning, it represented a setback for Hallstein's
federalist vision. When Hallstein's term expired in 1967, French
opposition blocked his reappointment, and he was succeeded by Jean Rey.
Hallstein's
departure marked the end of an ambitious phase in European integration.
The Commission would not regain similar initiative until the Delors
presidency in the 1980s. Nevertheless, the institutional foundations
Hallstein established endured, and many of his ideas would be realized
in later treaties.
Later Career and Legacy (1967-1982)
Return to German Politics
After
leaving the Commission, Hallstein returned to German politics. He was
elected to the Bundestag (the German parliament) in 1969 as a member of
the Christian Democratic Union (CDU), representing the Neuwied
constituency. He served until 1972, focusing on European affairs in his
parliamentary work.
Concurrently,
Hallstein served as President of the European Movement International
from 1968 to 1974, continuing to advocate for European unity outside
formal institutions. The European Movement, founded after World War II
to promote European integration, provided Hallstein with a platform to
maintain his influence on European debates.
Intellectual Contributions and Writings
Throughout
his career, Hallstein was a prolific writer and speaker on European
integration. His books, including "Europe in the Making" and "United
Europe," elaborated his federalist vision and reflected on his
experiences in building European institutions.
Hallstein's
writings emphasized several key themes: the historical necessity of
European unity to prevent future conflicts; the economic benefits of
integration; and the gradual process of building a "European
consciousness" alongside institutional structures. He argued that
economic integration must ultimately lead to political union if it was
to endure.
Final Years and Death
In
his later years, Hallstein continued to comment on European affairs
while maintaining academic connections. He died on 29 March 1982 in
Stuttgart at the age of 80, leaving behind a complex legacy as both a
visionary of European unity and a controversial figure whose
supranational ambitions provoked nationalist backlash.
Assessment and Historical Significance
Hallstein's Federalist Vision
Walter
Hallstein's most enduring contribution was his consistent advocacy for a
federal Europe. Unlike functionalists who saw integration as a gradual,
sector-by-sector process, Hallstein viewed economic integration as a
means to achieve political union. He believed that shared institutions
and the "community method" of decision-making (with an independent
Commission proposing legislation) would inevitably lead to deeper
political integration.
This
vision was evident in his Commission presidency, where he sought to
strengthen supranational institutions at the expense of national
sovereignty. While this approach ultimately led to his downfall during
the Empty Chair Crisis, many elements of his federalist vision would
resurface in later stages of European integration, particularly in the
Maastricht Treaty that created the European Union .
Administrative Legacy
As
the first Commission president, Hallstein established patterns of
administration and governance that continue to shape the European Union.
His organization of the Commission into specialized portfolios, his
emphasis on professional expertise, and his development of a European
civil service created a model for supranational administration.
Hallstein
also set important precedents in the Commission's relationship with
other institutions. His practice of presenting proposals to the
Parliamentary Assembly before the Council of Ministers established the
principle of parliamentary accountability that would grow over time,
culminating in the Parliament's current role in approving the Commission
president.
Controversies and Criticisms
Hallstein's
legacy is not without controversy. His assertive leadership style and
supranational ambitions alienated national leaders, particularly de
Gaulle, who saw him as undermining national sovereignty. Some critics
argued that Hallstein's federalism moved too quickly, provoking backlash
that actually slowed integration .
Historians
have also debated Hallstein's wartime activities. While he never joined
the Nazi Party and maintained distance from Nazi ideology, his
successful academic career during the Third Reich and his military
service have raised questions about accommodation with the regime. Most
assessments conclude that Hallstein was not a Nazi sympathizer but
rather a pragmatic academic who maintained his position while avoiding
political entanglement.
Lasting Influence on European Integration
Despite
these controversies, Hallstein's influence on European integration is
undeniable. The institutional architecture he helped design -
particularly the balance between supranational institutions and member
states - remains at the heart of the European Union. His belief that
economic integration must serve political goals continues to inform
debates about Europe's future.
Many
of Hallstein's specific initiatives, such as the Common Agricultural
Policy and customs union, endured long after his presidency. His
federalist vision, while unrealized in his lifetime, prefigured later
developments like European monetary union and attempts at political
union.
Conclusion: Hallstein's Relevance Today
Nearly
forty years after his death and over sixty years after his Commission
presidency, Walter Hallstein's legacy remains highly relevant to
contemporary European debates. The tensions he navigated - between
national sovereignty and supranational authority, between
intergovernmental cooperation and federal union, between economic and
political integration - continue to define EU politics.
Hallstein's
career offers important lessons about the possibilities and limits of
European integration. His successes demonstrate how visionary leadership
can shape institutions and advance integration, while his conflicts
with de Gaulle illustrate the enduring power of nationalist resistance
to supranationalism .
As
the European Union faces new challenges - from democratic backsliding
in member states to disputes over fiscal policy and migration -
Hallstein's belief in "an ever closer union" remains both an inspiration
and a subject of contention. His life's work stands as a testament to
the transformative power of institutions and the enduring appeal of
European unity as a response to the continent's turbulent history.
In
recognition of his contributions, Hallstein has been honored
posthumously in various ways, including having a reading room named
after him at the Historical Archives of the European Union in Florence.
His papers, comprising 80 linear meters of documents spanning 1914-1982,
provide invaluable resources for understanding the early history of
European integration .
Walter
Hallstein's journey from German legal scholar to European statesman
embodies the postwar transformation of Europe from a continent of
warring states to a community of nations seeking shared solutions to
common problems. While the European Union has evolved in ways Hallstein
might not have anticipated, his vision of a united Europe remains
central to the EU's identity and aspirations.
