Cyprus' Path to Independence: The Zurich-London Agreements and the Birth of the Republic (1959–1960)
The history of Cyprus' independence is a complex and tumultuous journey that spans centuries of foreign domination, political struggle, and international diplomacy. The granting of independence to Cyprus by the United Kingdom in 1959 was a landmark event in the island's history, marking the end of British colonial rule and the birth of the Republic of Cyprus. However, the independence gained was not the culmination of a harmonious process but rather the result of years of tension, negotiation, and conflict between different ethnic groups on the island, primarily the Greek Cypriots and Turkish Cypriots, as well as the involvement of external powers like Greece, Turkey, and the United Kingdom.
The History of Cyprus Under British Rule
Cyprus as a British Colony
In 1878, Cyprus was placed under British administration by the Ottoman Empire in exchange for British support during the Russo-Turkish War. While Cyprus remained nominally part of the Ottoman Empire, Britain assumed effective control of the island's governance, establishing military and naval bases and using Cyprus as a strategic point in the Eastern Mediterranean.
In 1914, as a consequence of the First World War, Britain formally annexed Cyprus, following the collapse of the Ottoman Empire. The island remained a British colony until its independence in 1960. During this period, the Greek Cypriot population, which made up the majority of the island's inhabitants, began advocating for Enosis, or union with Greece, while the Turkish Cypriot minority resisted this move, fearing the loss of their political and cultural identity.
The Rise of Nationalism and the Enosis Movement
The idea of Enosis gained momentum during the interwar period and became a central political issue in Cyprus. It was fueled by the Greek Cypriot nationalist movement, which was strongly supported by the Greek government. Enosis supporters argued that Cyprus, due to its historical and cultural ties to Greece, should be unified with Greece and that Greek Cypriots had a natural right to self-determination.
In the 1950s, the movement gained further strength, with the establishment of the National Organization of Cypriot Fighters (EOKA), a paramilitary group led by Georgios Grivas, a Greek army officer. EOKA launched a violent campaign of guerilla warfare against British colonial rule, hoping to force Britain to grant Cyprus independence and, ultimately, achieve Enosis. The EOKA campaign created a rift between the Greek and Turkish Cypriot communities, as the Turkish Cypriots feared that Enosis would result in their marginalization and the loss of their rights on the island.
The Turkish Cypriot Reaction
The Turkish Cypriot community strongly opposed the idea of Enosis, as it would have meant the end of their political autonomy and the domination of the Greek Cypriot majority. The Turkish Cypriots instead called for Taksim, or the partition of the island, to create separate Greek and Turkish Cypriot states. This created a sharp division between the two communities, and the violence between Greek and Turkish Cypriots escalated during the EOKA campaign.
The tension between the Greek and Turkish Cypriot communities was exacerbated by the involvement of external powers, particularly Greece and Turkey, which had vested interests in the fate of Cyprus. Greece supported the idea of Enosis and provided covert assistance to the EOKA, while Turkey supported the Turkish Cypriots and called for partition. This international involvement further complicated the situation on the island.
British Response and the Zurich and London Agreements
As the violence on the island escalated, the British government realized that maintaining control over Cyprus was becoming increasingly difficult. In 1955, the British Prime Minister, Sir Anthony Eden, acknowledged that the situation was untenable and began exploring the possibility of a settlement. The United Kingdom was also concerned about the international and regional implications of the Cyprus issue, as the Cold War rivalry between the United States and the Soviet Union played a role in the negotiations.
In 1959, after years of tension and escalating violence, Britain, Greece, and Turkey, with the assistance of UN mediators, began negotiating a solution to the Cyprus question. The negotiations took place in Zurich and London and culminated in the Zurich-London Agreements, which set the terms for Cyprus' independence.
The Zurich-London Agreements
The Zurich-London Agreements, signed in 1959, were the key diplomatic framework for Cyprus' independence. The negotiations were complex, with each party seeking to protect its interests. The final agreement was reached after intense negotiations between the Greek Cypriot and Turkish Cypriot communities, as well as the British government, and it created the framework for an independent Republic of Cyprus.
Key Provisions of the Agreement:
Independence for Cyprus: The agreement granted full independence to Cyprus, ending British colonial rule. Cyprus would become a sovereign state, with the government based on power-sharing between Greek and Turkish Cypriots.
Constitutional Structure: The agreement established a bi-communal system, where the Greek Cypriots would hold the majority of political power, while the Turkish Cypriots would have guaranteed political rights. The presidency was to be held by a Greek Cypriot, and the vice-presidency by a Turkish Cypriot.
Guarantee of Rights: A central aspect of the agreement was the guarantee of political rights for the Turkish Cypriot community. The constitution guaranteed that no laws could be passed without the approval of both the Greek and Turkish Cypriot communities. The agreement also provided for the establishment of a National Guard, which would have both Greek and Turkish Cypriot officers.
Security Arrangements: The agreement stipulated that Greece, Turkey, and the United Kingdom would be the guarantors of Cyprus’ independence. This meant that the three powers would have the right to intervene in the event of a threat to Cyprus' sovereignty or security. This security guarantee was one of the key points of contention in the post-independence period.
British Military Bases: The agreement allowed Britain to retain two military bases on the island, Akrotiri and Dhekelia, which are still in use today by the British Armed Forces.
Nationalism and Minority Rights: The Greek Cypriots and Turkish Cypriots were expected to coexist peacefully in the new state, with mutual respect for each other’s religious and cultural identities. However, the ethnic tensions that had developed over decades of conflict remained an underlying issue.
Cyprus Declares Independence (1960)
On 16th August 1960, Cyprus formally proclaimed its independence. The first president of the Republic of Cyprus was Archbishop Makarios III, a prominent leader of the Greek Cypriot community and a key figure in the movement for independence. The first vice-president was Dr. Fazıl Küçük, a Turkish Cypriot leader.
The establishment of the Republic of Cyprus was a significant achievement, but the tensions that had plagued the island for decades did not disappear. The new constitutional framework, which was intended to balance the interests of the Greek and Turkish Cypriot communities, was inherently fragile. Although Cyprus gained independence, the ethnic divisions between the Greek and Turkish Cypriots remained deep, and the competing nationalisms continued to pose challenges for the young republic.
The Aftermath and Challenges of Independence
Ethnic Tensions and Intercommunal Violence
In the years following independence, the power-sharing arrangements created by the Zurich-London Agreements began to unravel. The Greek Cypriot majority increasingly chafed against the restrictions placed on them by the bi-communal constitution, which they saw as limiting their political power. The Turkish Cypriot minority, on the other hand, feared that the Greek Cypriots would eventually undermine their rights.
Intercommunal violence erupted sporadically in the early 1960s, and by 1963, tensions escalated to the point where the United Nations was called in to mediate. In 1964, the UN Peacekeeping Force in Cyprus (UNFICYP) was deployed to maintain peace on the island, marking the beginning of a long-standing international presence on Cyprus.
The Cyprus Problem and the 1974 Coup
The unresolved issues stemming from the independence agreement and the subsequent political and ethnic tensions ultimately led to the Turkish invasion of Cyprus in 1974, following a Greek-backed coup. The island was effectively partitioned, and the division remains to this day, with Northern Cyprus under Turkish control and the Republic of Cyprus governing the southern part of the island.
Conclusion
Cyprus' independence in 1960 marked the end of over 80 years of British colonial rule and the establishment of a new, independent republic. However, the agreements that led to independence did not fully address the deep-rooted ethnic divisions between the Greek and Turkish Cypriot communities. These divisions, combined with external political pressures from Greece and Turkey, ensured that the post-independence period would be fraught with conflict and instability. Despite this, Cyprus' independence remains a pivotal moment in the island's history, representing both the triumph and the challenges of achieving self-rule amidst competing nationalisms and historical grievances.
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