Walter Hallstein: Architect of European Integration and First President of the European Commission
The Legacy of Walter Hallstein
Walter Hallstein (17 November 1901 - 29 March 1982) stands as one of the most influential figures in the history of European integration. As the first President of the European Commission from 1958 to 1967, Hallstein shaped the institutional foundations of what would become the European Union. His vision of a federal Europe, his administrative acumen in building supranational institutions, and his diplomatic skills in navigating complex international negotiations established patterns of European governance that endure to this day.
Hallstein's career spanned multiple domains - academia, diplomacy, and European politics - each phase preparing him for his pivotal role in European institution-building. From Germany's youngest law professor to State Secretary at the German Foreign Office under Konrad Adenauer, and finally to the presidency of the European Economic Community's Commission, Hallstein consistently advocated for deeper European integration as the solution to Europe's historical conflicts and contemporary challenges.
This comprehensive examination of Hallstein's life and work will explore his early academic career, his wartime experiences, his crucial role in post-war German diplomacy, his visionary leadership of the European Commission, and his lasting impact on the European project. We will analyze both his achievements and the controversies surrounding his approach, particularly his federalist vision that ultimately led to his departure from the Commission.
Early Life and Academic Career (1901-1945)
Formative Years and Legal Education
Walter Peter Hallstein was born on 17 November 1901 in Mainz, Germany, into a middle-class family. His early education at a classical school in Mainz laid the foundation for his later intellectual pursuits. After completing his Abitur (university entrance qualification) in 1920, Hallstein embarked on the study of law, attending universities in Bonn, Munich, and finally Berlin at the Friedrich Wilhelm University (now Humboldt University).
Hallstein's academic trajectory was remarkably swift and distinguished. At just 23 years old, he earned his doctorate in 1925 with a dissertation examining commercial aspects of the Treaty of Versailles - an early indication of his interest in international law and relations. Following legal clerkship at the Kammergericht (Berlin's superior court) from 1923-1926 and a brief stint as a judge in 1927, Hallstein joined the prestigious Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Foreign Private and International Private Law in Berlin.
Under the mentorship of Professor Martin Wolff, a leading scholar of private law, Hallstein specialized in comparative commercial and company law. He completed his Habilitation (the qualification for university teaching in Germany) in 1929 with a thesis on company law, and at the unprecedented age of 29, was appointed professor of private law and company law at the University of Rostock in 1930 - making him Germany's youngest law professor at the time.
Academic Advancement During the Nazi Era
Hallstein's academic career continued to advance during the turbulent 1930s and early 1940s. He served as Deputy Dean of Rostock's Law Faculty in 1935 and became Dean in 1936, positions he held until 1941 when he moved to Frankfurt University as Director of the Institute for Comparative Law and Economic Law.
This period of Hallstein's life has been subject to historical scrutiny, as it coincided with the rise and consolidation of Nazi power in Germany. While Hallstein joined several professional organizations that were nominally Nazi-affiliated, available evidence indicates he never joined the Nazi Party itself or its paramilitary wing, the SA. Contemporary accounts suggest he maintained distance from Nazi ideology, and his 1941 appointment at Frankfurt faced opposition from Nazi officials before being pushed through by academic colleagues.
Hallstein also undertook voluntary military service during this period, attending various military courses between 1936-1939 and becoming a reserve officer. In 1942, he was called up for active service as a first lieutenant (Oberleutnant) in an artillery regiment stationed in northern France.
Prisoner of War and Intellectual Activity
Hallstein's wartime service ended on 26 June 1944 when he was captured by American forces during the Battle of Cherbourg. Transported to Camp Como, a prisoner-of-war camp in Mississippi, Hallstein turned his captivity into an intellectual opportunity. He organized a "camp university" where he taught law courses to fellow prisoners and participated in the U.S. Army's "Sunflower Project" - a re-education program that exposed German POWs to American democratic principles and constitutional governance.
These experiences profoundly influenced Hallstein's postwar thinking. His exposure to American federalism and democratic institutions during captivity, combined with his firsthand witnessing of Europe's destructive nationalism, shaped his later advocacy for European integration as both an economic necessity and political imperative.
Postwar Academic and Diplomatic Career (1945-1957)
Rebuilding German Academia
Returning to Germany in November 1945, Hallstein immediately involved himself in the reconstruction of German academic life. He played a key role in reopening Frankfurt University, where he became a professor on 1 February 1946. Just two months later, he was elected rector of the university, a position he held until 1948. During this period, Hallstein also founded and presided over the South German Rectors' Conference, establishing himself as a leading figure in postwar German higher education.
Hallstein's international connections and clean political record (having never joined the Nazi Party) made him a valuable figure in Germany's cultural diplomacy. From 1948-1949, he served as a visiting professor at Georgetown University in Washington D.C., further strengthening his ties with American academia and policymakers. He also co-founded the German national UNESCO committee, serving as its president from 1949-1950.
Transition to Diplomacy: The Schuman Plan Negotiations
Hallstein's transition from academia to diplomacy began in June 1950 when German Chancellor Konrad Adenauer, on the recommendation of economist Wilhelm Röpke, appointed him to lead the German delegation in negotiations over the Schuman Plan - French Foreign Minister Robert Schuman's proposal for a European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC).
This appointment marked a turning point in Hallstein's career and in the history of European integration. Working closely with Jean Monnet, the French delegation leader, Hallstein helped craft the institutional framework that would become the ECSC, established by the Treaty of Paris in 1951. The ECSC, which pooled French and German coal and steel production under a supranational High Authority, represented the first concrete step toward European integration and the precursor to today's European Union.
Hallstein's performance at these negotiations impressed Adenauer, who in August 1950 appointed him head of the Office of Foreign Affairs at the Federal Chancellery. When the German Foreign Office was reestablished in March 1951 (Germany having been without a foreign ministry since the war), Hallstein became its State Secretary on 2 April 1951 - effectively serving as West Germany's top diplomat while Adenauer himself held the title of Foreign Minister.
Architect of West German Foreign Policy
As State Secretary from 1951-1958, Hallstein played a central role in shaping West Germany's postwar foreign policy. He was instrumental in negotiating the treaties that restored West German sovereignty, including the 1952 Treaty of Bonn and the 1954 Paris Accords, which ended the Allied occupation and paved the way for West Germany's membership in NATO.
Hallstein's most famous contribution during this period was the formulation of the "Hallstein Doctrine" - West Germany's policy of refusing diplomatic relations with any country (except the Soviet Union) that recognized East Germany. This doctrine, which remained in effect until 1969, reflected Hallstein's commitment to maintaining West Germany's claim as the sole legitimate German state while pursuing integration with Western Europe.
Within Adenauer's government, Hallstein represented the "Europeanist" faction that favored deep political and economic integration, often clashing with Economics Minister Ludwig Erhard, who preferred looser economic cooperation through intergovernmental organizations like the OEEC (Organization for European Economic Cooperation). Hallstein viewed European integration not merely as an economic project but as a political necessity to prevent a return to nationalist conflicts.
From Messina to Rome: Crafting the EEC
Hallstein's diplomatic skills were further tested at the 1955 Messina Conference, where he led the German delegation in discussions that would lead to the creation of the European Economic Community (EEC). Despite internal German divisions between Hallstein's Foreign Office and Erhard's Economics Ministry, the conference established an intergovernmental committee (chaired by Belgian Foreign Minister Paul-Henri Spaak) to develop proposals for further integration.
The Spaak Report that emerged from these discussions formed the basis for the Treaty of Rome, signed on 25 March 1957, which established both the EEC and Euratom (the European Atomic Energy Community). Hallstein played a crucial role in these negotiations, helping to bridge differences between member states and maintaining momentum toward integration despite competing national interests.
When the Treaty of Rome came into force on 1 January 1958, Hallstein's extensive experience in European negotiations and his vision for integration made him the natural choice to lead the new European Economic Community's Commission - the executive body that would oversee implementation of the treaty and development of the common market.
Presidency of the European Commission (1958-1967)
Establishing the New Institution
Walter Hallstein assumed office as the first President of the EEC Commission on 7 January 1958, leading a nine-member body (with two commissioners each from France, Italy, and West Germany, and one each from Belgium, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg). The Commission held its first formal meeting on 16 January 1958 at the Château of Val-Duchesse in Brussels.
From the outset, Hallstein approached his role with a clear federalist vision. He famously described his position as "a kind of European prime minister" and dismissed national sovereignty as a "doctrine of yesteryear" . This supranational orientation would define his presidency but also ultimately contribute to his downfall.
Hallstein's first priority was to establish the Commission as an effective executive body. He organized it along the lines of a national government, with specialized portfolios for each commissioner and a clear hierarchical structure. This approach gave the new institution operational capacity but also drew criticism from those who feared the creation of a "European superstate".
Building the Common Market
The Commission's primary task under the Treaty of Rome was to establish a common market among member states. Hallstein pursued this goal with remarkable energy, overseeing the elimination of internal tariffs and the creation of a customs union, which was achieved ahead of schedule by 1968.
One of Hallstein's most significant achievements was the development of the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP). Recognizing that industrial integration alone would not sustain European unity, Hallstein championed a comprehensive agricultural policy that would protect farmers' incomes while modernizing European agriculture. The CAP, established in 1962, became the EEC's most expensive and politically sensitive policy, absorbing over 70% of the community budget for decades.
Hallstein also advanced integration in other areas, including competition policy (establishing rules against cartels and monopolies), transport policy (developing common standards), and social policy (creating the European Social Fund). Under his leadership, the Commission began developing what would later become hallmark EU policies.
Institutional Development and Supranational Vision
Beyond specific policies, Hallstein worked to strengthen the Community's institutional framework. He cultivated a close relationship with the European Parliamentary Assembly (precursor to today's European Parliament), presenting his proposals to parliament before the Council of Ministers - a practice that emphasized his view of the Commission as accountable to a European rather than intergovernmental body.
In 1965, Hallstein proposed reforms to strengthen the Commission's autonomy and the Parliament's powers. These included giving the Community its own financial resources (rather than relying on member state contributions) and extending majority voting in the Council of Ministers (reducing national veto power). Hallstein saw these changes as necessary for effective decision-making in an expanding Community, but they provoked fierce opposition, particularly from French President Charles de Gaulle.
The Empty Chair Crisis and Hallstein's Downfall
Hallstein's ambitious proposals triggered what became known as the "Empty Chair Crisis" of 1965-1966. De Gaulle, who opposed any strengthening of supranational institutions at the expense of national sovereignty, withdrew French representatives from EEC institutions, bringing Community business to a standstill.
The crisis was resolved by the "Luxembourg Compromise" in January 1966, which effectively preserved national veto power on issues deemed vital to national interests. While this compromise allowed the Community to continue functioning, it represented a setback for Hallstein's federalist vision. When Hallstein's term expired in 1967, French opposition blocked his reappointment, and he was succeeded by Jean Rey.
Hallstein's departure marked the end of an ambitious phase in European integration. The Commission would not regain similar initiative until the Delors presidency in the 1980s. Nevertheless, the institutional foundations Hallstein established endured, and many of his ideas would be realized in later treaties.
Later Career and Legacy (1967-1982)
Return to German Politics
After leaving the Commission, Hallstein returned to German politics. He was elected to the Bundestag (the German parliament) in 1969 as a member of the Christian Democratic Union (CDU), representing the Neuwied constituency. He served until 1972, focusing on European affairs in his parliamentary work.
Concurrently, Hallstein served as President of the European Movement International from 1968 to 1974, continuing to advocate for European unity outside formal institutions. The European Movement, founded after World War II to promote European integration, provided Hallstein with a platform to maintain his influence on European debates.
Intellectual Contributions and Writings
Throughout his career, Hallstein was a prolific writer and speaker on European integration. His books, including "Europe in the Making" and "United Europe," elaborated his federalist vision and reflected on his experiences in building European institutions.
Hallstein's writings emphasized several key themes: the historical necessity of European unity to prevent future conflicts; the economic benefits of integration; and the gradual process of building a "European consciousness" alongside institutional structures. He argued that economic integration must ultimately lead to political union if it was to endure.
Final Years and Death
In his later years, Hallstein continued to comment on European affairs while maintaining academic connections. He died on 29 March 1982 in Stuttgart at the age of 80, leaving behind a complex legacy as both a visionary of European unity and a controversial figure whose supranational ambitions provoked nationalist backlash.
Assessment and Historical Significance
Hallstein's Federalist Vision
Walter Hallstein's most enduring contribution was his consistent advocacy for a federal Europe. Unlike functionalists who saw integration as a gradual, sector-by-sector process, Hallstein viewed economic integration as a means to achieve political union. He believed that shared institutions and the "community method" of decision-making (with an independent Commission proposing legislation) would inevitably lead to deeper political integration.
This vision was evident in his Commission presidency, where he sought to strengthen supranational institutions at the expense of national sovereignty. While this approach ultimately led to his downfall during the Empty Chair Crisis, many elements of his federalist vision would resurface in later stages of European integration, particularly in the Maastricht Treaty that created the European Union .
Administrative Legacy
As the first Commission president, Hallstein established patterns of administration and governance that continue to shape the European Union. His organization of the Commission into specialized portfolios, his emphasis on professional expertise, and his development of a European civil service created a model for supranational administration.
Hallstein also set important precedents in the Commission's relationship with other institutions. His practice of presenting proposals to the Parliamentary Assembly before the Council of Ministers established the principle of parliamentary accountability that would grow over time, culminating in the Parliament's current role in approving the Commission president.
Controversies and Criticisms
Hallstein's legacy is not without controversy. His assertive leadership style and supranational ambitions alienated national leaders, particularly de Gaulle, who saw him as undermining national sovereignty. Some critics argued that Hallstein's federalism moved too quickly, provoking backlash that actually slowed integration .
Historians have also debated Hallstein's wartime activities. While he never joined the Nazi Party and maintained distance from Nazi ideology, his successful academic career during the Third Reich and his military service have raised questions about accommodation with the regime. Most assessments conclude that Hallstein was not a Nazi sympathizer but rather a pragmatic academic who maintained his position while avoiding political entanglement.
Lasting Influence on European Integration
Despite these controversies, Hallstein's influence on European integration is undeniable. The institutional architecture he helped design - particularly the balance between supranational institutions and member states - remains at the heart of the European Union. His belief that economic integration must serve political goals continues to inform debates about Europe's future.
Many of Hallstein's specific initiatives, such as the Common Agricultural Policy and customs union, endured long after his presidency. His federalist vision, while unrealized in his lifetime, prefigured later developments like European monetary union and attempts at political union.
Conclusion: Hallstein's Relevance Today
Nearly forty years after his death and over sixty years after his Commission presidency, Walter Hallstein's legacy remains highly relevant to contemporary European debates. The tensions he navigated - between national sovereignty and supranational authority, between intergovernmental cooperation and federal union, between economic and political integration - continue to define EU politics.
Hallstein's career offers important lessons about the possibilities and limits of European integration. His successes demonstrate how visionary leadership can shape institutions and advance integration, while his conflicts with de Gaulle illustrate the enduring power of nationalist resistance to supranationalism .
As the European Union faces new challenges - from democratic backsliding in member states to disputes over fiscal policy and migration - Hallstein's belief in "an ever closer union" remains both an inspiration and a subject of contention. His life's work stands as a testament to the transformative power of institutions and the enduring appeal of European unity as a response to the continent's turbulent history.
In recognition of his contributions, Hallstein has been honored posthumously in various ways, including having a reading room named after him at the Historical Archives of the European Union in Florence. His papers, comprising 80 linear meters of documents spanning 1914-1982, provide invaluable resources for understanding the early history of European integration .
Walter Hallstein's journey from German legal scholar to European statesman embodies the postwar transformation of Europe from a continent of warring states to a community of nations seeking shared solutions to common problems. While the European Union has evolved in ways Hallstein might not have anticipated, his vision of a united Europe remains central to the EU's identity and aspirations.
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