Independence Day, celebrates the independence of South Sudan from Sudan in 2011
South Sudan's journey to becoming the world's newest nation on July 9, 2011 represents one of the most dramatic and hard-fought independence movements in modern history. This landlocked country in East Africa, bordered by Sudan to the north, Ethiopia to the east, Kenya, Uganda and the Democratic Republic of the Congo to the south, and the Central African Republic to the west, emerged from decades of civil war, ethnic conflict, and political struggle against the Khartoum-based Sudanese government. The path to independence was paved with immense sacrifice - an estimated 2 million lives lost during the Second Sudanese Civil War alone - and culminated in a historic referendum where 98.83% of South Sudanese voted to secede from Sudan . This comprehensive account traces the complex historical roots of South Sudan's independence movement, the key events that shaped its trajectory, and the challenges that have marked its early years as a sovereign state.
Colonial Roots of Division
The seeds of South Sudan's eventual independence were sown during the colonial period when British administrators implemented policies that accentuated the differences between northern and southern Sudan. The region comprising present-day Sudan and South Sudan had been subject to conquest and colonization for centuries, with the Ottoman Empire and Funj Sultanate conquering much of the former Nubian Empire in the early 16th century . The reign of Muhammad Ali of Egypt in the early 19th century marked a key turning point in the Sudanese slave trade, with raids largely focused on the southern region where populations were predominantly Black African rather than Arab .
When Britain began establishing control over Sudan in the late 19th century as part of the Anglo-Egyptian condominium arrangement, they found a territory already deeply divided along geographical and ethnic lines. The White Nile River served as a natural boundary between a majority-Arab, Muslim north and a largely Black African south where traditional religions and Christianity were predominant . British colonial policy deliberately maintained and reinforced this division through measures like the Closed District Ordinance of 1922, which restricted movement between north and south and required passbooks for travel between the regions . This was intended to prevent Arabization and Islamization of the south while allowing British missionaries to propagate Christianity in the southern regions.
The British administration focused its limited development resources almost exclusively on the north, leaving the south chronically underdeveloped in terms of education, healthcare, and infrastructure . This neglect created stark disparities that would fuel future conflicts. As historian Robert Collins observed, "The British left the South Sudanese with little preparation for self-rule while giving Northern Sudanese the tools to dominate the entire country" . This imbalance became particularly problematic as Sudan moved toward independence in the mid-20th century.
The First Sudanese Civil War (1955-1972)
Sudan's transition to independence in 1956 was marred by the outbreak of civil war just months before the formal handover of power. The immediate trigger came in August 1955 when southern troops in Torit mutinied after being ordered to relocate to Khartoum in the north . This mutiny quickly escalated into a full-scale rebellion as southerners, who had expected greater autonomy under the new government, realized that power would be concentrated in the Arab-dominated north. The British, sensing the coming storm, accelerated their withdrawal, leaving Sudan to its own devices without adequate mechanisms to address north-south tensions .
The mutineers and other southern dissidents coalesced into the Anyanya rebel movement (the name derived from the Madi word for "snake venom") , launching what would become Africa's longest-running civil conflict up to that time. The First Sudanese Civil War was characterized by brutal guerrilla warfare in the southern bush, with the Khartoum government employing scorched-earth tactics and indiscriminate violence against civilian populations suspected of supporting the rebels .
Northern attempts to forcibly assimilate the south exacerbated tensions. In 1962, the military government of General Ibrahim Abboud launched an aggressive campaign of Islamization and Arabization, replacing English with Arabic as the language of instruction in southern schools and expelling Christian missionaries . These measures provoked violent resistance and strengthened southern determination to resist northern domination.
The war dragged on for 17 years with neither side able to achieve decisive victory. A turning point came when Israel began providing military support to the Anyanya in the late 1960s, concerned about Sudan's growing ties with Egypt (Israel's primary regional adversary) . Bolstered by this support, the southern rebels under General Joseph Lagu were able to negotiate from a position of relative strength, culminating in the Addis Ababa Agreement of 1972 . This accord granted southern Sudan autonomous status within a unified Sudan, with its own legislature and English recognized as the principal language in the south. For the next decade, South Sudan experienced an uneasy peace while remaining part of Sudan.
The Second Sudanese Civil War and the Rise of the SPLA/M (1983-2005)
The Addis Ababa Agreement's promise of southern autonomy was steadily eroded during the 1970s as successive Khartoum governments recentralized power and resumed policies of Islamization. The discovery of oil in the border regions between north and south in 1978 added a new dimension to the conflict, with both sides recognizing the strategic importance of controlling these resources .
The final breakdown came in 1983 when President Gaafar Nimeiry unilaterally abrogated the autonomy agreement and declared all of Sudan, including the south, an Islamic state under Sharia law . This provocative move triggered the formation of the Sudan People's Liberation Army/Movement (SPLA/M) under the leadership of Colonel John Garang, a U.S.-educated Dinka officer who had defected from the Sudanese army . The SPLA/M launched its insurgency on June 5, 1983, marking the beginning of the Second Sudanese Civil War - a conflict that would prove even more devastating than the first.
Unlike the Anyanya, which had fought primarily for southern secession, Garang's SPLA/M initially advocated for a "New Sudan" - a secular, democratic, and united Sudan that would guarantee equal rights to all regions and ethnic groups . This ideological stance helped the SPLA/M gain support from marginalized groups in other parts of Sudan, including the Nuba Mountains and Blue Nile regions. However, as the war progressed and peace negotiations faltered, the movement increasingly focused on southern self-determination as its primary objective.
The war was marked by extreme brutality on both sides. Government forces routinely conducted aerial bombardments of southern villages, while the SPLA/M engaged in forced conscription and occasional attacks on civilian targets . Famine became a weapon of war, with government forces blocking food aid to rebel-held areas and all sides looting humanitarian supplies . An estimated 2 million people died during the 22-year conflict, primarily from war-induced famine and disease, while over 4 million were displaced from their homes .
The international dimension of the conflict grew increasingly complex. The Khartoum government received support from Islamist groups and Middle Eastern countries, while the SPLA/M found backing from Ethiopia (under Mengistu Haile Mariam), Uganda, and occasionally from Western governments concerned about Sudan's Islamist orientation . The 1990s saw the conflict become entangled with other regional wars, as Khartoum supported the Lord's Resistance Army's insurgency in Uganda in retaliation for Ugandan support to the SPLA/M .
A major turning point came in 1991 when internal divisions within the SPLA/M erupted into open conflict. Riek Machar, a Nuer commander, split from Garang's predominantly Dinka leadership, accusing him of authoritarian tendencies . This split took on ethnic dimensions, with Machar's Nuer forces clashing violently with Garang's Dinka loyalists. The resulting internecine fighting, including the infamous Bor Massacre where thousands of Dinka civilians were killed by Nuer fighters, weakened the southern rebellion and allowed government forces to regain territory.
Despite these setbacks, neither side could achieve military victory. By the late 1990s, both the Khartoum government and the SPLA/M were exhausted and facing growing international pressure to negotiate. The U.S. government, under President George W. Bush, took an active interest in resolving the conflict, appointing former Senator John Danforth as special envoy in 2001 . This led to the Machakos Protocol in 2002, which established the framework for southern self-determination through a future referendum .
After years of painstaking negotiations, the Comprehensive Peace Agreement (CPA) was finally signed in Nairobi on January 9, 2005 . The CPA provided for a six-year interim period during which South Sudan would enjoy substantial autonomy under the Government of Southern Sudan (GoSS), with John Garang serving as First Vice President of Sudan and President of Southern Sudan . Most critically, the agreement guaranteed that after six years, the people of South Sudan would vote in a referendum on whether to remain part of Sudan or become independent.
The Interim Period and Road to Referendum (2005-2011)
The sudden death of John Garang in a helicopter crash on July 30, 2005, just three weeks after being sworn in as First Vice President, threatened to derail the fragile peace process . Garang's deputy, Salva Kiir Mayardit, assumed leadership of the SPLA/M and the GoSS, maintaining commitment to the CPA despite significant challenges during the interim period.
Implementation of the peace agreement faced numerous obstacles. Disputes arose over oil revenue sharing (with most oil reserves located in the south but pipeline infrastructure controlled by the north), border demarcation, and the status of contested regions like Abyei, South Kordofan, and Blue Nile . The promised referendum on Abyei's status was postponed indefinitely due to disagreements over voter eligibility, particularly whether the nomadic Misseriya Arabs (who seasonally migrated through the region) should be allowed to vote .
Preparations for the southern independence referendum were complicated by logistical challenges. South Sudan lacked basic infrastructure, with much of its territory inaccessible by road during the rainy season. A census conducted in 2008 was marred by controversy and boycotts, particularly in Darfur where many feared the results would be used against them . Voter registration had to be extended multiple times to account for southerners living in the north or in refugee camps in neighboring countries.
Tensions escalated as the referendum approached in January 2011. Hardliners in Khartoum, including elements within the ruling National Congress Party (NCP), opposed southern secession and some reportedly sought to sabotage the process . President Omar al-Bashir, while publicly committing to respect the referendum outcome, warned that separation would bring new challenges: "The stability of the south is very important to us because any instability in the south will have an impact on the north. If there is a war in your neighbor's house, you will not be at peace" .
Despite these tensions, the referendum proceeded peacefully from January 9-15, 2011, under intense international scrutiny. Voter turnout exceeded 97%, with 98.83% voting for independence . While there were allegations of irregularities in some counties (including reports of turnout exceeding 100% in 10 counties), international observers generally deemed the process free and fair, with the overwhelming margin making any irregularities statistically irrelevant .
Independence and Early Challenges (2011-Present)
On July 9, 2011, South Sudan officially became an independent nation, with Salva Kiir as its first president and Riek Machar as vice president. The new country was immediately recognized by the international community, including Sudan, and was admitted to the United Nations as the 193rd member state on July 14 .
However, independence did not bring immediate stability. Several critical issues remained unresolved with Sudan, including:
The status of Abyei, where a simultaneous referendum had been planned but postponed due to disagreements
Disputed border areas, particularly those containing oil fields
The division of national debt (estimated at $38 billion)
Oil revenue sharing and transit fees (with South Sudan controlling 75% of former Sudan's oil reserves but dependent on northern pipelines to export its oil)
These disputes led to periodic clashes along the border, most notably in the Heglig oil region in 2012, where South Sudanese troops briefly occupied territory claimed by Sudan before being repelled . An economic crisis ensued when South Sudan shut down oil production in 2012 after Sudan began confiscating southern oil shipments over disputes about transit fees .
More devastatingly, internal tensions within South Sudan's leadership erupted into open conflict in December 2013 when President Kiir accused Vice President Machar of attempting a coup . What began as a political dispute quickly took on ethnic dimensions, with Kiir's Dinka ethnic group and Machar's Nuer group engaging in brutal retaliatory violence. The resulting civil war (2013-2020) claimed nearly 400,000 lives and displaced over 4 million people before a fragile peace agreement was reached in 2018 .
Despite these challenges, South Sudan's independence remains a historic achievement - the culmination of decades of struggle against marginalization and for self-determination. As the world's youngest nation celebrates its Independence Day each July 9, it does so with awareness of both how far it has come and how far it still has to go in building a peaceful, prosperous future for all its citizens. The road ahead remains difficult, but the determination that carried South Sudan to independence continues to shape its national character as it confronts the challenges of state-building in the 21st century.
Photo: Pixabay
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