The Siege of Athens (1687) and the Partial Destruction of the Parthenon During the Morean War

The Siege of Athens (1687) and the Partial Destruction of the Parthenon During the Morean War

The Morean War, which took place between 1684 and 1699, was part of a series of conflicts involving the Republic of Venice and the Ottoman Empire. This war, also known as the Sixth Ottoman-Venetian War, was largely fought over control of territories in the Mediterranean, particularly in the Peloponnese, then known as the Morea. The conflict was deeply intertwined with broader European power struggles, including the Holy League's campaigns against the Ottomans and the ongoing wars between European Christian states and the Islamic Ottoman Empire.

 

One of the most significant events in this war was the bombardment of the Parthenon in Athens during the Siege of the Acropolis in 1687. This event resulted in the partial destruction of the Parthenon, an architectural masterpiece that had stood for over two millennia as a symbol of ancient Greek civilization.

The Context of the Morean War

The Morean War began in the aftermath of the Ottoman Empire's failed siege of Vienna in 1683. The Ottomans, once an aggressive and expansive power, were beginning to lose ground in Europe. The Republic of Venice, which had already fought five wars against the Ottoman Empire over the preceding centuries, saw an opportunity to expand its territory in the Mediterranean and regain control of regions lost to the Ottomans.

Venice was a formidable maritime power, and its leaders sought to strengthen their influence in the eastern Mediterranean. The Peloponnese, with its strategic position and fertile lands, was of particular interest to Venice. The Ottomans, on the other hand, had maintained control of the region since the mid-15th century and were determined to keep it as part of their vast empire.

At the time, Europe was deeply involved in a series of wars against the Ottoman Empire, united under the banner of the Holy League, an alliance of Christian states formed by the Pope to halt Ottoman expansion. This alliance included the Holy Roman Empire, Poland, Russia, and Venice. The alliance's military successes in other parts of the Ottoman Empire emboldened Venice to pursue its own territorial ambitions, leading to the outbreak of the Morean War.

The Siege of Athens and the Role of the Parthenon

By 1687, the Venetian forces, under the command of Francesco Morosini, had successfully captured much of the Morea, including the key cities of Nauplia and Corinth. Morosini then set his sights on Athens, which was of strategic importance due to its location and its commanding view over the surrounding region.

At the time, Athens was under Ottoman control, and the city's iconic Acropolis, with its ancient structures including the Parthenon, was being used as a military fortress. The Ottomans had converted the Parthenon, a former Greek temple dedicated to the goddess Athena, into a mosque after their conquest of Athens in the 15th century. During the siege, the Ottoman forces stationed in Athens repurposed the Parthenon as a gunpowder depot, placing the city’s most important ancient monument at the center of the conflict.

In September 1687, Morosini's forces began their siege of Athens, bombarding the city and targeting the Acropolis, where the Ottoman defenders had taken refuge. On September 26, a Venetian cannonball struck the Parthenon, which, due to its use as a gunpowder store, exploded with devastating force. The resulting explosion caused extensive damage to the structure, blowing off a large portion of its roof and destroying many of its internal columns and sculptures.

The destruction of the Parthenon was not an intentional act of cultural vandalism by the Venetians, but rather a consequence of the building’s military use by the Ottomans. Nonetheless, the incident is often viewed as a tragic loss for world heritage. The Parthenon, which had survived the vicissitudes of time for over two thousand years, was now irreparably damaged.

The Immediate Aftermath and the Venetian Occupation

Following the destruction of the Parthenon, the Venetian forces continued their siege of Athens. By early October, the Ottoman garrison, weakened by the explosion and the relentless bombardment, surrendered. Morosini’s forces took control of the city and its Acropolis.

Morosini himself was reportedly fascinated by the ancient Greek monuments and considered removing some of the sculptures from the Acropolis as war trophies. He even made an attempt to remove a large sculpture from the west pediment of the Parthenon, but the operation was botched, and the sculpture was severely damaged. This event foreshadowed the later removal of many Parthenon sculptures by Lord Elgin in the early 19th century, which would become a source of enduring controversy.

Despite their victory, the Venetians did not remain in control of Athens for long. The Ottoman Empire, though weakened, was far from defeated, and its forces regrouped for a counteroffensive. By 1688, the Ottomans had launched a major campaign to retake Athens. Unable to hold the city in the face of this renewed Ottoman assault, the Venetians withdrew, and Athens returned to Ottoman control.

The Morean War would continue for another decade, with Venice eventually consolidating its control over the Peloponnese. The Treaty of Karlowitz, signed in 1699, officially ended the conflict, with Venice gaining several territories, including the Morea. However, the Venetian presence in the region would be short-lived. The Ottomans recaptured the Morea in 1715, just over a decade after the end of the Morean War, during the Seventh Ottoman-Venetian War. This marked the final chapter in Venice's centuries-long struggle against the Ottoman Empire.

The Cultural Impact and Legacy of the Parthenon’s Destruction

The partial destruction of the Parthenon during the Morean War is often seen as one of the most significant cultural losses in history. For centuries, the Parthenon had stood as a symbol of the achievements of classical Greek civilization, representing the zenith of ancient Greek architecture, art, and philosophy. Its destruction was a reminder of the often-devastating consequences of war, particularly when cultural heritage is caught in the crossfire.

The Parthenon had already undergone several transformations before the Morean War. Originally built as a temple to Athena in the mid-5th century BCE, it had been converted into a Christian church in the Byzantine era and later into a mosque under Ottoman rule. Despite these changes, the structure had remained largely intact until the explosion of 1687.

The destruction of the Parthenon sparked interest in the ancient ruins of Greece among European intellectuals and travelers. The 18th and 19th centuries saw a revival of interest in classical antiquity, with many European scholars, architects, and artists drawing inspiration from the ruins of ancient Greece, particularly the Parthenon. This period, known as the Neoclassical movement, celebrated the ideals of ancient Greek and Roman art and architecture, and the Parthenon became an iconic symbol of these ideals.

In the 19th century, the Parthenon’s damaged sculptures became the subject of further controversy when Lord Elgin, the British ambassador to the Ottoman Empire, removed many of the surviving sculptures and brought them to Britain. These sculptures, known as the Elgin Marbles, are now housed in the British Museum in London, but their removal has been a source of ongoing debate. Greece has long sought the return of the Elgin Marbles, arguing that they are an integral part of the Parthenon and Greek heritage.

Restoration Efforts

In the centuries since its partial destruction, numerous efforts have been made to restore and preserve the Parthenon. The first attempts at restoration began in the 19th century after Greece gained independence from the Ottoman Empire. However, modern scientific restoration efforts did not begin in earnest until the mid-20th century.

Today, the Parthenon is part of a larger conservation and restoration project overseen by the Greek government and international organizations. The goal of these efforts is not to fully rebuild the Parthenon to its original state, but rather to stabilize the structure, repair damage, and protect it from further deterioration. The ongoing restoration work on the Acropolis, including the Parthenon, is considered one of the most ambitious and complex architectural conservation projects in the world.

Conclusion

The Morean War and the siege of Athens in 1687 had profound consequences for both the region and the cultural heritage of the ancient world. The partial destruction of the Parthenon, one of the most iconic symbols of ancient Greek civilization, was a tragic consequence of the conflict. While the war itself was part of a broader struggle between Venice and the Ottoman Empire for control of Mediterranean territories, the bombardment of the Parthenon serves as a stark reminder of the collateral damage that often accompanies warfare, particularly when it involves sites of immense historical and cultural significance.

Today, the Parthenon remains a powerful symbol of Greece's ancient heritage and its contributions to world civilization. Its ruins continue to inspire admiration and reflection, even as efforts to preserve and restore it move forward. The events of 1687, though devastating, have become part of the complex history of a monument that has stood at the crossroads of civilizations for millennia.

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