Lise Meitner: Pioneer of Nuclear Physics, Overcoming Discrimination to Discover Nuclear Fission

Lise Meitner: Pioneer of Nuclear Physics, Overcoming Discrimination to Discover Nuclear Fission

Lise Meitner, an Austrian-Swedish physicist, is one of the most celebrated figures in the field of nuclear physics. Her contributions were instrumental in the discovery of nuclear fission, a breakthrough that has shaped modern physics and led to the development of both nuclear energy and weapons. However, her scientific achievements were often overshadowed by the political climate of her time, particularly the discrimination she faced as a Jewish woman in Nazi Germany. This biography will explore Meitner's life, work, and the legacy she left behind, chronicling her journey from a young scientist to an overlooked yet monumental figure in physics.

 

Early Life and Education

Childhood and Family

Lise Meitner was born on November 7, 1878, in Vienna, Austria-Hungary, as the third of eight children in a Jewish family. Her father, Philipp Meitner, was a lawyer, and her mother, Hedwig Skovran, a talented pianist, fostered a rich intellectual and cultural environment at home. The Meitners were an educated and progressive family, promoting the idea of learning, especially for girls, which was unusual for the time.

From a young age, Lise showed great aptitude in mathematics and science. However, women’s education in the late 19th century was limited, and Austria only allowed girls to attend higher education institutions if they took private lessons and passed exams. Lise's father, fully supportive of her ambitions, arranged for her to take private lessons in physics and mathematics, allowing her to pass her "Matura" (the equivalent of a high school diploma) in 1901 at the age of 22, an accomplishment in itself given the gender barriers of the time.

University of Vienna and Early Academic Pursuits

Meitner's academic journey truly began when she enrolled at the University of Vienna, where she studied physics under the guidance of the famous physicist Ludwig Boltzmann. Boltzmann's passionate teaching and commitment to atomic theory had a profound influence on Meitner, fueling her interest in the new and rapidly evolving field of nuclear physics.

In 1906, Meitner earned her doctorate in physics, becoming the second woman to earn a PhD from the University of Vienna. Her doctoral thesis focused on heat conduction in non-homogeneous substances. This marked the beginning of her serious engagement with physics, and she soon became determined to pursue a career in research, even though the prospects for women in academia were dim at the time.

Early Career in Berlin

Collaboration with Max Planck and Otto Hahn

After completing her doctorate, Meitner moved to Berlin in 1907 to continue her studies. There, she attended the lectures of Max Planck, another leading physicist of the time. Initially, Planck was skeptical of women in science but soon recognized Meitner's exceptional talent and allowed her to become his assistant. This opportunity was a turning point for Meitner as she entered the vibrant intellectual community of German physicists.

In 1909, Meitner began collaborating with the chemist Otto Hahn at the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Chemistry in Berlin. While Hahn focused on chemistry, Meitner's expertise in physics made them a complementary pair, and together they conducted groundbreaking research on radioactive elements. Their work was pivotal in the exploration of radioactive decay and the behavior of alpha and beta particles, furthering the understanding of atomic structure.

Struggles as a Woman in Science

Despite her growing reputation in the scientific community, Meitner faced many challenges because of her gender. Women were not allowed to work in official academic positions in Germany at the time, and for the first several years, Meitner had to work in Hahn's lab without pay and without her own laboratory space. She was often relegated to secondary roles, excluded from formal scientific discussions, and had limited access to research facilities. However, her perseverance and passion for physics kept her going, and over time she earned respect within the male-dominated scientific community.

The Road to Nuclear Fission

Discovering the Neutron and Moving Toward Fission

In the 1920s and early 1930s, nuclear physics was rapidly developing, with many discoveries that would eventually lead to the understanding of nuclear fission. Meitner and Hahn continued their work on radioactive elements, and in 1934, the Italian physicist Enrico Fermi's experiments on neutron bombardment of uranium prompted Meitner and Hahn to investigate similar reactions.

At the time, the discovery of the neutron by James Chadwick in 1932 had opened up new avenues for understanding atomic structure, and scientists believed that bombarding atomic nuclei with neutrons might create new, heavier elements. Meitner and Hahn began experimenting with uranium, trying to create what were called “transuranic elements,” which would be heavier than uranium.

Exile and Scientific Breakthrough

In 1938, Meitner's career took a drastic turn due to the political situation in Germany. As a Jew, she was forced to flee the country after the annexation of Austria by Nazi Germany. With the help of her colleagues, including Otto Hahn and Dutch physicist Dirk Coster, Meitner escaped to Sweden, where she took a position at the Manne Siegbahn Institute in Stockholm. Though she was physically safe, her resources for continuing her research were severely limited.

Despite these challenges, Meitner remained in contact with Hahn, who continued their experiments in Berlin. In late 1938, Hahn and his assistant Fritz Strassmann conducted an experiment bombarding uranium with neutrons, and to their surprise, they found that barium, a much lighter element, was produced. Hahn was puzzled by this result, and he sent his findings to Meitner for her interpretation.

While on a winter vacation in Sweden with her nephew Otto Robert Frisch, Meitner realized that the nucleus of the uranium atom had split in two, a process that released a large amount of energy. This was the process of nuclear fission. Meitner and Frisch performed theoretical calculations to confirm that the energy released during the fission process corresponded to Albert Einstein’s famous equation, $$E=mc2$$, which explains the relationship between mass and energy. They published their results in early 1939, and the discovery of nuclear fission was made known to the world.

Exclusion from the Nobel Prize

Although Meitner was the physicist who provided the theoretical explanation of nuclear fission, Otto Hahn received the 1944 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for the discovery, while Meitner was completely overlooked. This exclusion has been widely regarded as one of the most significant omissions in the history of the Nobel Prize. Meitner herself was deeply hurt by this, especially as Hahn never publicly acknowledged her critical contributions to the discovery.

In hindsight, the Nobel Committee's decision has been criticized as reflecting the gender bias and political climate of the time. Meitner’s exclusion has come to symbolize the many women in science who have been marginalized or erased from historical accounts of scientific discoveries.

Later Life and Legacy

Contributions to Nuclear Physics and Advocacy

After the discovery of nuclear fission, Meitner continued to work in physics, but her career never reached the same heights. She remained in Sweden, becoming a Swedish citizen in 1949, and continued to publish research on nuclear physics and radioactivity.

Meitner was strongly opposed to the use of nuclear fission for weapons, a stance she maintained throughout her life. She famously refused to work on the Manhattan Project, the U.S. military’s effort to build an atomic bomb during World War II. Instead, she focused on peaceful applications of nuclear energy and became an advocate for the responsible use of scientific discoveries.

Recognition and Awards

In her later years, Lise Meitner received numerous accolades for her groundbreaking contributions to science, though much of the recognition came late in her life. In 1966, she was awarded the prestigious Enrico Fermi Award by the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission, alongside Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann, for their pivotal role in the discovery of nuclear fission.

Meitner's accolades began much earlier, with her receiving the Leibniz Medal in 1924 and the Lieben Prize in 1925. She was further honored with the Ellen Richards Prize in 1928. In 1946, she was named Woman of the Year by the American press, a notable recognition of her scientific achievements and resilience in a male-dominated field.

In 1947, Meitner received the Vienna Prize, and in 1949, she was honored with the Max Planck Medal for her contributions to theoretical physics. Later, in 1954, she was awarded the Otto Hahn Prize, a particularly meaningful award given their long-standing scientific collaboration. In 1960, she was recognized with the Wilhelm Exner Medal, and the following year, she retired to Cambridge, England.

Her legacy continued to be acknowledged, and in 1967, she was awarded the Austrian Decoration for Science and Art, a symbol of her lasting impact on both science and her native Austria. Meitner also received honorary doctorates from several prestigious universities throughout her life, a testament to her enduring influence in the field of nuclear physics and in 1960, she retired to Cambridge, England.

In 1968, Lise Meitner passed away at the age of 89. On her gravestone in Bramley, Hampshire, her epitaph reads, "Lise Meitner: a physicist who never lost her humanity," a testament to her ethical commitment to science.

Posthumous Recognition

Since her death, Meitner’s contributions have been increasingly recognized. In 1992, the element meitnerium (atomic number 109) was named in her honor, ensuring her legacy in the periodic table. Today, she is celebrated as a pioneer in nuclear physics and as an example of resilience in the face of discrimination.

Conclusion

Lise Meitner’s life and career serve as a powerful reminder of the struggles and triumphs of women in science. Despite the challenges she faced—discrimination based on both her gender and her Jewish heritage—Meitner remained dedicated to her work and made one of the most important discoveries in 20th-century physics. Her legacy is not just in the field of nuclear physics, but also in the broader history of women in science, as a symbol of perseverance, integrity, and the pursuit of knowledge.

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