The 1960 Independence of Cyprus: A Complex Journey from British Rule to Ongoing Division

The 1960 Independence of Cyprus: A Complex Journey from British Rule to Ongoing Division

Independence Day in Cyprus, celebrated on October 1st, marks the day when the island nation gained its independence from British rule in 1960. This historic event was the culmination of decades of political struggle, violence, and diplomatic negotiations that reflected the complex ethnic, political, and international dimensions of Cypriot society. The road to independence was long and fraught with challenges, particularly due to the competing interests of the island’s two main ethnic communities, the Greek Cypriots and the Turkish Cypriots, as well as the strategic interests of the British, who had ruled Cyprus as a colony since the late 19th century. The establishment of an independent republic in 1960, while seen as a victory for self-determination, left unresolved tensions that would later erupt into violence and division.

 

Early History of Cyprus and British Rule

Cyprus, located in the eastern Mediterranean, has a long history of foreign rule and cultural diversity. The island was first inhabited by ancient civilizations and became a strategic point of interest for various empires, including the Egyptians, Persians, Greeks, and Romans. Throughout its history, Cyprus was ruled by a succession of foreign powers, each leaving a distinct cultural and political imprint on the island.

In the 16th century, Cyprus became part of the Ottoman Empire, which ruled the island for over 300 years. During the Ottoman period, the population of Cyprus was primarily made up of Greek Orthodox Christians, who formed the majority, and Turkish Muslims, who were the minority but held significant political and administrative power under Ottoman rule. The Ottoman Empire’s millet system allowed for a degree of religious and cultural autonomy for the Greek Orthodox Church, but the political power was concentrated in the hands of the Ottoman authorities and the Muslim minority.

In 1878, Cyprus was leased to the British Empire following an agreement between the British and the Ottoman Empire. This marked the beginning of British colonial rule, although Cyprus technically remained part of the Ottoman Empire until the British annexed the island in 1914 during World War I. The Treaty of Lausanne in 1923, which ended the conflict between the Ottoman Empire and the Allies, formally ceded Cyprus to Britain.

Under British rule, Cyprus became a Crown colony in 1925, and its strategic location in the Mediterranean made it an important outpost for the British Empire, particularly during World War II. However, British colonial policies, combined with the island’s ethnic diversity and political aspirations, laid the groundwork for the eventual struggle for independence.

The Rise of Nationalism and the Enosis Movement

By the early 20th century, nationalist movements began to emerge among the island’s Greek and Turkish communities. The Greek Cypriots, who made up around 80% of the population, were strongly influenced by the idea of Enosis, or union with Greece. The desire for Enosis was driven by a sense of ethnic and cultural affinity with Greece, as well as a desire to rid Cyprus of British colonial rule. The Greek Orthodox Church, which held significant influence among the Greek Cypriot population, was a strong proponent of Enosis, and many Greek Cypriot political leaders and intellectuals supported the cause.

The Turkish Cypriots, who constituted about 18% of the population, had a different vision for the future of Cyprus. Fearing that Enosis would lead to the marginalization of their community and a loss of political and cultural rights, the Turkish Cypriots opposed the idea of union with Greece. Instead, many Turkish Cypriots supported Taksim, the partition of Cyprus into separate Greek and Turkish territories, as a means of ensuring their security and political autonomy.

The conflicting aspirations of the two communities would lead to increasing tensions throughout the 1950s. The Greek Cypriots' demands for Enosis intensified after World War II, when other British colonies began to gain independence. In 1950, the Greek Orthodox Church organized a plebiscite in which the majority of Greek Cypriots voted in favor of Enosis. However, the British authorities rejected the idea of union with Greece, and the Turkish Cypriot community strongly opposed it as well.

The EOKA Struggle and the Push for Independence

The rejection of the Greek Cypriots' demands for Enosis led to the formation of the National Organization of Cypriot Fighters (EOKA), a militant group led by General George Grivas. EOKA’s goal was to force the British to grant Cyprus independence and allow for its eventual union with Greece. EOKA launched a guerrilla campaign against the British colonial authorities in 1955, targeting British military installations, government officials, and infrastructure.

The British responded to the EOKA insurgency with military force and repressive measures, including arrests, detention without trial, and the imposition of martial law. The conflict escalated as both sides engaged in violent attacks and reprisals, with civilian casualties becoming increasingly common. The violence also strained relations between the Greek and Turkish communities, as the Turkish Cypriots increasingly feared that an independent Cyprus under Greek Cypriot control would lead to their marginalization or even persecution.

In response to the growing conflict, the Turkish Cypriot community formed its own paramilitary organization, TMT (Türk Mukavemet Teşkilatı), which sought to counter EOKA’s influence and protect the Turkish Cypriots. TMT, like EOKA, engaged in violent attacks, contributing to the deepening ethnic divide on the island.

The Road to Independence: International Diplomacy and the Zurich-London Agreements

By the late 1950s, it had become clear that the British could no longer maintain control over Cyprus without a political settlement. The violence, combined with international pressure, particularly from the United Nations, led to a series of negotiations between the British government, the Greek Cypriots, the Turkish Cypriots, Greece, and Turkey.

In 1959, after months of diplomatic efforts, the Zurich-London Agreements were reached. These agreements established the framework for an independent Republic of Cyprus, which would be neither united with Greece nor partitioned between Greek and Turkish territories. Instead, Cyprus would become a sovereign state with a power-sharing arrangement between the Greek and Turkish communities. Under the terms of the agreements:

• Cyprus would become an independent republic, with a Greek Cypriot president and a Turkish Cypriot vice president, each elected by their respective communities.
• The island’s constitution would include provisions to protect the political and cultural rights of both communities, with separate Greek and Turkish municipalities and a quota system for public offices to ensure representation for both ethnic groups.
• Cyprus would not be allowed to join any political or military union with another country (thus ruling out Enosis or Taksim), and Britain, Greece, and Turkey would serve as guarantor powers to ensure the independence and territorial integrity of the island.
• Britain would retain control over two sovereign military bases, Akrotiri and Dhekelia, which remain under British control to this day.

The Zurich-London Agreements were a compromise solution that reflected the competing interests of the Greek Cypriots, Turkish Cypriots, and the British. While the agreements provided for Cyprus’s independence, they also imposed significant restrictions on the island’s sovereignty, particularly in terms of foreign policy and military affairs. Nevertheless, the agreements were seen as the best possible solution to a complex and volatile situation.

Independence and the Birth of the Republic of Cyprus

On August 16, 1960, Cyprus officially gained its independence, and the Republic of Cyprus was born. Archbishop Makarios III, the leader of the Greek Cypriot nationalist movement, became the first president of the new republic, while Fazıl Küçük, a prominent Turkish Cypriot politician, became vice president. The new republic was hailed as a success of international diplomacy, and its constitution was seen as a model for resolving ethnic conflicts through power-sharing arrangements.

Independence Day, celebrated on October 1st, became the national holiday of Cyprus, marking the end of British colonial rule and the beginning of a new chapter in the island’s history. For many Cypriots, independence was a moment of pride and hope, a chance to build a new nation free from foreign domination.

However, the early years of the Republic of Cyprus were marked by growing tensions between the Greek and Turkish communities. The power-sharing arrangements enshrined in the constitution quickly became a source of friction, as both sides accused the other of undermining the agreement. The Turkish Cypriots, in particular, felt that they were being marginalized by the Greek Cypriot majority, while the Greek Cypriots believed that the provisions of the constitution gave disproportionate power to the Turkish minority.

The Collapse of the Power-Sharing Agreement and the Intercommunal Violence

The fragile peace established by the Zurich-London Agreements began to unravel in the early 1960s. Disputes over constitutional amendments and the functioning of the government led to increasing tensions between the two communities. In 1963, President Makarios proposed a series of constitutional changes aimed at strengthening the central government and reducing the power of the Turkish Cypriot minority. The Turkish Cypriots, fearing that these changes would erode their political rights, rejected the proposals.

The situation escalated into violence in December 1963, when intercommunal clashes broke out between Greek and Turkish Cypriots. The violence, which became known as the Cyprus Crisis of 1963-1964, led to the displacement of thousands of Turkish Cypriots, who fled to enclaves protected by Turkish Cypriot militias. The United Nations intervened, establishing the UN Peacekeeping Force in Cyprus (UNFICYP) in 1964 to help maintain order and prevent further violence.

Despite the presence of UN peacekeepers, tensions between the two communities continued to simmer throughout the 1960s. The political and social divisions between the Greek and Turkish Cypriots deepened, with both sides accusing each other of undermining the peace process.

The 1974 Coup and Turkish Invasion

The situation in Cyprus took a dramatic turn in 1974, when a Greek-backed military coup overthrew President Makarios with the aim of achieving Enosis. The coup, which was orchestrated by the Greek military junta, was seen as a direct threat to the Turkish Cypriot community and a violation of the 1960 agreements.

In response to the coup, Turkey launched a military invasion of Cyprus on July 20, 1974, under the pretext of protecting the Turkish Cypriots. The Turkish military quickly gained control of the northern part of the island, leading to the division of Cyprus into two separate zones. The Greek Cypriots fled to the south, while the Turkish Cypriots moved to the north.

The invasion resulted in the permanent partition of Cyprus, with the northern part of the island declaring itself the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus (TRNC) in 1983, a state recognized only by Turkey. The southern part of the island remains under the control of the internationally recognized Republic of Cyprus, which is predominantly Greek Cypriot.

The Legacy of Independence and the Ongoing Conflict

Cyprus’s independence in 1960 marked the end of British colonial rule, but it did not bring peace or unity to the island. The unresolved ethnic tensions between the Greek and Turkish communities, combined with the strategic interests of foreign powers, have left Cyprus divided for over four decades. The Green Line, a buffer zone patrolled by UN peacekeepers, separates the Greek Cypriot south from the Turkish Cypriot north, and efforts to reunify the island have so far been unsuccessful.

Despite the division, Independence Day remains a significant national holiday in the Republic of Cyprus. It is a day of reflection on the island’s long struggle for self-determination and a reminder of the challenges that still lie ahead. For many Cypriots, independence represents both a victory and a loss – a victory in the sense of gaining freedom from colonial rule, but a loss in terms of the continued division and conflict that have plagued the island since 1974.

Independence Day is marked by official ceremonies, military parades, and cultural events in the Greek Cypriot-controlled areas. However, the celebrations are muted by the ongoing division of the island and the absence of a comprehensive solution to the Cyprus problem.

Conclusion

The independence of Cyprus in 1960 was a milestone in the island’s long and complex history. It marked the end of British colonial rule and the beginning of a new era of self-governance. However, the unresolved ethnic tensions between the Greek and Turkish communities, combined with the strategic interests of Britain, Greece, and Turkey, made it difficult for Cyprus to achieve lasting peace and stability.

The legacy of independence in Cyprus is one of both pride and sorrow. While the island gained its sovereignty, it remains divided, with the Greek and Turkish Cypriots living in separate and often hostile worlds. The ongoing efforts to reunify Cyprus reflect the deep-rooted challenges that the island continues to face, as well as the hope that one day, the people of Cyprus will be able to live together in peace and harmony.

Image : iStock

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